Psychological distress and prejudice following terror attacks in France

Abstract

Terrorist attacks have the capacity to threaten our beliefs about the world, cause distress across populations and promote discrimination towards particular groups. We examined the impact of two different types of attacks in the same city and same year on psychological distress and probable posttraumatic stress symptoms, and the moderating effects of religion or media use on distress/posttraumatic symptoms and inter-group relations. Two panel surveys four weeks after the January 2015 Charlie Hebdo attack (N = 1981) and the November 2015 Bataclan concert hall/restaurant attacks (N = 1878), measured intrinsic religiosity, social and traditional media use, psychological distress (K6), probable posttraumatic stress symptoms (proposed ICD-11), symbolic racism and willingness to interact with Muslims by non-Muslims. Prevalence of serious mental illness (K6 score > 18) was higher after November 2015 attacks (7.0% after the first attack, 10.2% the second, χ2 (1) = 5.67, p < 0.02), as were probable posttraumatic stress symptoms (11.9% vs. 14.1%; χ2 (1) = 4.15, p < 0.04). In structural equation analyses, sex, age, geographic proximity, media use and religiosity were associated with distress, as was the interaction between event and religiosity. Distress was then associated with racism symbolism and willingness to interact with Muslims. Implications are considered for managing psychological trauma across populations, and protecting inter-group harmony.

Introduction

France suffered two major terrorist attacks during 2015, both attributed to Islamist groups. The first, in January, targeted the Paris-based satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo, killing 12 people, and was claimed as a response to the publication of satirical cartoons. In the second, November attack, marauding gunmen and suicide bombers attacked the Bataclan concert hall and restaurants in the multicultural central district of Paris and its northern suburb St. Denis, killing 130. There are different possible outcomes of these events for psychological well-being and intergroup relations. From an inoculation approach, the first attack hardened French citizens against further terror events, weakening the impact of a second terror event (Bleich et al., 2003). An alternative, dose-response approach suggests the larger, apparently ‘motiveless’ second attack challenged an “assumptive” view of the world as a safe, benevolent place (Janoff-Bulman, 1992), and had more severe psychological consequences. Further factors may have moderated stress responses. Those living closer to the attack may be more affected (Canetti-Nisim et al., 2009); indirect exposure via the media may also amplify distress (Goodwin et al., 2015), while individual religiosity may help individuals cope with mortality threat (Fischer, 2006). Distress in turn has been associated with increased prejudice and exclusionist attitudes (Canetti-Nisim et al., 2009). We tested relationships between the event, location, media exposure and religiosity and distress, and associations between distress, racism and social interaction following each attack.